In 30 seconds
- Muscle soreness comes mainly from eccentric contractions. It usually peaks between 24 and 48 hours and disappears in about 7 days.
- In a meta-analysis of 99 studies, massage was the technique that most reduced soreness and fatigue. Stretching did not reduce them.
- In 18 trials, BCAAs reduced soreness at 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours, and lowered creatine kinase right after exercise and at 72 hours.
- Your strongest protection is the muscle itself: a second identical effort causes less damage than the first.
Muscle soreness is the visible side of the muscle damage that exercise causes. It is one of the most studied topics in recovery, and today there are meta-analyses for almost everything: massage, cold, compression, supplements. This is what works, with the figures.
How long it lasts
Muscle soreness over time
What exercise-induced muscle damage is
Researchers call it exercise-induced muscle damage. It is caused mainly by eccentric contractions, the ones a muscle makes while it lengthens: walking downhill, lowering a weight under control, landing from a jump 1.
Its effects 1:
- Soreness, or delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).
- Less maximal strength and less range of movement.
- Blood markers: creatine kinase, LDH and myoglobin rise, as they leak out of the damaged fibres.
Symptoms usually peak between 24 and 48 hours and disappear in about 7 days 1.
Why it hurts
As many as six explanations have been put forward: lactic acid, spasms, connective tissue damage, fibre damage, inflammation and enzymes leaking out of the muscle. The reference review concludes that two or more of them most likely combine 3.
The lactic acid explanation does not hold up. Two or three days after the effort, lactate is back at resting levels and the pain is still there. And injecting it into muscle does not cause soreness 4.
Level of evidence by outcome
| Outcome | Evidence | What the data show |
|---|---|---|
| Massage | Moderate | The most effective technique against soreness and fatigue in a meta-analysis of 99 studies. |
| BCAAs | Moderate | Less soreness at 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours in 18 trials; large effect at 48-72 hours. |
| Compression garments | Moderate | Less soreness and fatigue, with an effect still present at 96 hours. |
| Cold water and cryotherapy | Low | Small effect; cryotherapy only in the first 6 hours. |
| Omega-3 | Preliminary | Fewer damage markers in 10 trials; less soreness at 24 hours in a small trial. |
| Stretching | No clear effect | No benefit for soreness or fatigue. |
| Repeated bout effect | High | A second identical effort, once recovered from the first, causes fewer symptoms of damage. |
The rating is our own, based on the number of studies, their quality and the consistency of the results.
The key studies
| Study | Type | Sample | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Salem et al., 2024 | Meta-analysis | 18 trials | BCAAs: less soreness at 24, 48, 72 and 96 hours. Lower creatine kinase right after and at 72 hours; no effect on LDH. 1 |
| Dupuy et al., 2018 | Meta-analysis | 99 studies | Massage, compression, active recovery, immersion and cryotherapy reduced soreness; massage more than any other. Stretching did not. 2 |
| Xin and Eshaghi, 2021 | Meta-analysis | 10 trials | 0.8-3 g of omega-3 a day: lower creatine kinase, LDH and myoglobin, especially at 48 hours and with a month or more of use. 6 |
| Kyriakidou et al., 2021 | Placebo-controlled trial | 14 men | 3 g of omega-3 a day for 4 weeks: less soreness 24 hours after 60 minutes of downhill running. 7 |
| Lima and Denadai, 2015 | Review | Preconditioning studies | A few maximal isometric contractions 2-4 days beforehand protect against the damage of an eccentric effort. 5 |
Meta-analysis of 99 studies
Recovery techniques: which ones reduced soreness
Recovery techniques: the big meta-analysis
In 2018, a review with meta-analysis brought together 99 studies on the most widely used recovery techniques 2. Overall, they reduced soreness moderately. By technique:
- Massage: the most effective against soreness and the feeling of fatigue, in both athletes and sedentary people. It worked when applied straight after or up to 2 hours later, with an effect lasting up to 96 hours. It also lowered creatine kinase the most.
- Active recovery: a large effect on soreness, but only for a short time after exercise.
- Compression garments: reduced soreness and fatigue, with an effect still present at 96 hours.
- Cold water immersion: a small effect. The benefits were linked to water at 15 °C or below.
- Cryotherapy: a small effect, and only in the first 6 hours.
- Stretching and electrical stimulation: no benefit.
For inflammation, what worked best was massage and cold 2.
Compared with placebo
When soreness was lower with BCAAs
BCAAs: 18 trials on muscle soreness
The most recent meta-analysis on BCAAs and muscle damage brought together 18 trials: 13 with strength exercise and 5 with endurance exercise, most of them with trained people 1.
Compared with placebo, BCAAs reduced soreness:
- right after exercise: no difference;
- at 24 hours: a large effect;
- at 48 and 72 hours: the largest effect;
- at 96 hours: still significant.
Creatine kinase fell right after exercise and at 72 hours. LDH did not change at any point 1.
The doses varied widely: from 3.15 to 29.3 g a day, for 1 to 28 days. Higher daily doses were associated with a greater effect on soreness at 24 hours. And longer periods, with a greater effect on creatine kinase 1. The authors conclude that BCAAs can be used as an effective strategy to speed up recovery after intense exercise 1.
What about safety? Up to 20 g a day of BCAAs, in several servings, has caused no problems in studies of up to 6 weeks 8. You will find the rest of the studies on BCAAs in BCAAs and leucine.
Omega-3: promising results
In a meta-analysis of 10 trials, 0.8-3 g of omega-3 a day lowered creatine kinase, LDH and myoglobin after exercise. The drop in creatine kinase was clear at 48 hours and when it was taken for a month or more 6.
In a trial with 14 men, 3 g a day for 4 weeks reduced soreness after 60 minutes of downhill running. The difference appeared at 24 hours. There were no differences in strength or creatine kinase 7. We cover it in omega-3 and exercise.
Your strongest protection: the repeated bout effect
Once you have recovered from an effort that damaged your muscle, repeating the same effort no longer causes the same symptoms 5. The muscle adapts, and that greater resistance lasts between 6 and 12 weeks 4.
Even a few maximal isometric contractions, done 2-4 days beforehand, protect against the damage of an eccentric effort. With 2 contractions, protection peaked at 2 days and lasted up to 4 days 5.
That is why the reference review advises introducing eccentric or unfamiliar exercises gradually, over one or two weeks 3.
How it affects performance
Muscle soreness is not just a nuisance. It reduces range of movement, the ability to absorb impact and maximal strength. It can also change how you recruit your muscles, which puts more load on ligaments and tendons if you go back to maximal intensity too soon 3.
The practical advice: after a session that leaves you very sore, reduce the intensity and duration for a day or two, or work other muscle groups 3. We sum it up in muscle soreness: why it happens and how to ease it.
When it is more than soreness
Extreme effort can cause rhabdomyolysis: the breakdown of muscle fibres, whose contents pass into the blood and can damage the kidneys. The signs are dark, reddish or cola-coloured urine, weakness and very tender muscles. If you notice them, see a doctor 9.
Frequently asked questions
What is exercise-induced muscle damage?
It is small-scale injury to muscle fibres after an intense or unfamiliar effort, especially with eccentric contractions. It causes soreness, loss of strength and range of movement, and raises blood markers such as creatine kinase.
What works most effectively against muscle soreness?
In a meta-analysis of 99 studies, massage was the most effective technique, followed by active recovery and compression garments. Among supplements, a meta-analysis of 18 trials found less soreness with BCAAs than with placebo.
What BCAA doses were used in the studies on muscle soreness?
Between 3.15 and 29.3 g a day, for 1 to 28 days. Higher daily doses were associated with a larger effect on soreness at 24 hours.
Why is muscle soreness less the second time?
Because of the repeated bout effect: once you have recovered from a first effort, repeating the same effort no longer causes the same damage. That protection lasts for weeks.
Sources
- Salem A, Ben Maaoui K, Jahrami H, et al. Attenuating muscle damage biomarkers and muscle soreness after an exercise-induced muscle damage with branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) supplementation: a systematic review and meta-analysis with meta-regression. Sports Med Open. 2024;10:42. View publication
- Dupuy O, Douzi W, Theurot D, Bosquet L, Dugué B. An evidence-based approach for choosing post-exercise recovery techniques to reduce markers of muscle damage, soreness, fatigue, and inflammation: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Front Physiol. 2018;9:403. View publication
- Cheung K, Hume P, Maxwell L. Delayed onset muscle soreness: treatment strategies and performance factors. Sports Med. 2003;33(2):145-164. View publication
- Klimek AT. Physiological background of muscular pain during skiing and delayed muscle soreness after skiing. J Hum Kinet. 2010;23:55-61. View publication
- Lima LCR, Denadai BS. Attenuation of eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage conferred by maximal isometric contractions: a mini review. Front Physiol. 2015;6:300. View publication
- Xin G, Eshaghi H. Effect of omega-3 fatty acids supplementation on indirect blood markers of exercise-induced muscle damage: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Food Sci Nutr. 2021;9(11):6429-6442. View publication
- Kyriakidou Y, Wood C, Ferrier C, Dolci A, Elliott B. The effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on exercise-induced muscle damage. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2021;18(1):9. View publication
- Office of Dietary Supplements, National Institutes of Health. Dietary supplements for exercise and athletic performance: fact sheet for health professionals. View publication
- MedlinePlus, U.S. National Library of Medicine. Rhabdomyolysis. Reviewed 2 September 2025. View publication
Information based on published studies. It does not replace the advice of a doctor or registered dietitian. The results describe what was measured in each study, not the properties of any specific product. A varied and balanced diet and a healthy lifestyle are important.
